A synthesis of dryland restoration techniques.
Purpose
To quantitatively examine the efficacy of vegetation restoration in drylands globally.
Questions
- What is the global extent of research that directly examined restoration of drylands?
- What were the common measures?
- Is the restoration of vegetation a common and primary focus?
- How frequently does the restoration measure outcomes beyond the focal species?
- What were the primary restoration goals as reported by primary authors?
- How much variation was there in the techniques tested and how long were experiments monitored and tested?
- How relatively effective were the techniques?
Step 1. Search
Study-level viz to document patterns in exclusions primarily and the relatie frequenices, at the study level, of major categories of evidence.
#study data####
library(tidyverse)
studies <- read_csv("data/studies.csv")
studies## # A tibble: 278 x 18
## ID title technique data region exclude rationale observations
## <dbl> <chr> <chr> <chr> <chr> <chr> <chr> <chr>
## 1 152 Shor… seeding,… expe… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 2 180 Rest… chemical… App.… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 3 229 Infl… soil see… fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 4 230 Acti… planting fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 5 255 The … grazing … fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 6 262 Reve… seeding,… eper… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 7 263 The … phytogen… fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 8 264 Eval… seeding,… fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 9 271 Patc… natural … fiel… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## 10 4 Fact… natural … App.… Africa no <NA> <NA>
## # ... with 268 more rows, and 10 more variables: disturbance <chr>,
## # system <chr>, goal <chr>, intervention <chr>, paradigm <chr>,
## # grazing <chr>, hypothesis <chr>, soil <chr>, benchmark <chr>,
## # notes <chr>#quick look at rationale needed
exclusions <- studies %>%
filter(exclude == "yes")
#quick look at studies with paradigms
evidence <- studies %>%
filter(exclude == "no")
#library(skimr)
#skim(evidence)
#study-level viz#####
#exclusions
ggplot(exclusions, aes(rationale, fill = region)) +
geom_bar() +
coord_flip() +
labs(x = "rational for exclusion", y = "frequency") +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired")
ggplot(evidence, aes(disturbance, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(na.rm = TRUE) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired") +
labs(y = "frequency")
ggplot(evidence, aes(region, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(na.rm = TRUE) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired") +
labs(y = "frequency")
ggplot(evidence, aes(data, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(na.rm = TRUE) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired") +
labs(y = "frequency")
ggplot(evidence, aes(system, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(na.rm = TRUE) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired") +
labs(y = "frequency")
ggplot(evidence, aes(goal, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(na.rm = TRUE) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired") +
labs(x = "outcome", y = "frequency")
#step 1 models####
#paradigm
derived.evidence <- evidence %>%
group_by(technique, data, region, disturbance, goal, paradigm) %>% summarise(n = n())
#active-passive split
m <- glm(n~paradigm, family = poisson, derived.evidence)
anova(m, test="Chisq")## Analysis of Deviance Table
##
## Model: poisson, link: log
##
## Response: n
##
## Terms added sequentially (first to last)
##
##
## Df Deviance Resid. Df Resid. Dev Pr(>Chi)
## NULL 167 9.9147
## paradigm 1 0.045115 166 9.8696 0.8318#region
m1 <- glm(n~paradigm*region, family = poisson, derived.evidence)
#m1
#summary(m1)
anova(m1, test="Chisq")## Analysis of Deviance Table
##
## Model: poisson, link: log
##
## Response: n
##
## Terms added sequentially (first to last)
##
##
## Df Deviance Resid. Df Resid. Dev Pr(>Chi)
## NULL 167 9.9147
## paradigm 1 0.045115 166 9.8696 0.8318
## region 6 0.301367 160 9.5682 0.9995
## paradigm:region 6 0.213627 154 9.3546 0.9998#outcome
m2 <- glm(n~paradigm*goal, family = poisson, derived.evidence)
#m1
#summary(m1)
anova(m2, test="Chisq")## Analysis of Deviance Table
##
## Model: poisson, link: log
##
## Response: n
##
## Terms added sequentially (first to last)
##
##
## Df Deviance Resid. Df Resid. Dev Pr(>Chi)
## NULL 167 9.9147
## paradigm 1 0.045115 166 9.8696 0.8318
## goal 6 0.240941 160 9.6287 0.9997
## paradigm:goal 4 0.301480 156 9.3272 0.9897#even split between active and passive evidence by all key categoriesStep 2. Sort
A summary of sort process using PRISMA.
library(PRISMAstatement)
prisma(found = 1504,
found_other = 5,
no_dupes = 1039,
screened = 1039,
screen_exclusions = 861,
full_text = 178,
full_text_exclusions = 100,
qualitative = 100,
quantitative = 78,
width = 800, height = 800)Step 3. Synthesize
Check data and calculate necessary measures.
data <- read_csv("data/data.csv")
data <- data %>%
mutate(lrr = log(mean.t/mean.c), rii = ((mean.t-mean.c)/(mean.t + mean.c)), var.es = ((sd.t^2/n.t*mean.t^2) + (sd.c^2/n.c*mean.c^2)))
data## # A tibble: 3,367 x 48
## study.ID ID publication.year data.year exp.year `exp.length (mo…
## <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl>
## 1 1 1.1 2018 NA NA NA
## 2 1 1.1 2018 NA NA NA
## 3 1 1.1 2018 NA NA NA
## 4 1 1.2 2018 NA NA NA
## 5 1 1.2 2018 NA NA NA
## 6 1 1.2 2018 NA NA NA
## 7 1 1.3 2018 NA NA NA
## 8 1 1.3 2018 NA NA NA
## 9 1 1.3 2018 NA NA NA
## 10 1 1.4 2018 NA NA NA
## # ... with 3,357 more rows, and 42 more variables: disturbance <chr>,
## # focus <chr>, technique <chr>, paradigm <chr>, hypothesis <chr>,
## # pathway <chr>, plant.species <chr>, target.plant <chr>,
## # measure.success <chr>, measured.factor <chr>, factor.levels <chr>,
## # treatment <chr>, control <chr>, unit <chr>, Nsites <dbl>, n.t <dbl>,
## # n.c <dbl>, ntotalsamples <dbl>, mean.t <dbl>, mean.c <dbl>,
## # sd.t <dbl>, sd.c <dbl>, se.t <dbl>, se.c <dbl>, `p-value` <dbl>,
## # df <dbl>, measure.dispersion <chr>, lat <dbl>, long <dbl>,
## # continent <chr>, country <chr>, ecosystem <chr>, `elevation
## # (m)` <dbl>, `MAP (mm)` <dbl>, aridity.index <dbl>,
## # `potential.evaporation (mm)` <dbl>, grazing <chr>, soil <chr>,
## # notes <chr>, lrr <dbl>, rii <dbl>, var.es <dbl>#consider adding some other effect size measures and/or study-level data tooStep 4. Summarize
Explore summary level data of all data. Explore aggregation levels that support the most reasonable data structure and minimize non-independence issues.
#evidence map####
require(maps)
world<-map_data("world")
map<-ggplot() + geom_polygon(data=world, fill="gray50", aes(x=long, y=lat, group=group))
map + geom_point(data=data, aes(x=long, y=lat)) #render a literal map, i.e. evidence map, of where we study the niche in deserts globally
#aggregation####
data.simple <- data %>%
group_by(study.ID, paradigm, technique, measure.success) %>%
summarise(n = n(), mean.lrr = mean(lrr), mean.rii = mean(rii), mean.var = mean(var.es))
se <- function(x){
sd(x)/sqrt(length(x))
}
simple.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, paradigm) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
simple.data <- na.omit(simple.data)
tech.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, technique) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
tech.data <- na.omit(tech.data)
success.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, measure.success) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
sucsess.data <- na.omit(success.data)
#viz for aggregation####
ggplot(na.omit(data.simple), aes(technique, n, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired")
ggplot(na.omit(data.simple), aes(measure.success, n, fill = paradigm)) +
geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired")
Step 5. Statistics
Meta and conventional statistical models to explore relative efficacy.
library(plotrix) #for quick s.e. calculations sometimes needed for data tidy step
library(meta) #nice package for most meta-statistics
#assign model (typically a nice meta. function from one of several packages such as meta, metafor, or netmeta)
#need to write a quick function here to iterate and/or up split-map from broom
#rii####
#paradigm
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = paradigm, data = simple.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m## 95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random) paradigm
## 1 0.1004 [-0.0416; 0.2424] 0.5 3.6 passive
## 3 -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817] 0.9 3.9 active
## 6 0.1973 [-0.1756; 0.5702] 0.1 2.0 active
## 9 0.1901 [ 0.1523; 0.2280] 7.3 4.2 passive
## 13 -0.0083 [-0.0913; 0.0747] 1.5 4.0 active
## 20 -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102] 2.1 4.1 active
## 29 -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073] 1.3 4.0 active
## 30 -0.0326 [-0.1910; 0.1257] 0.4 3.5 active
## 31 0.3318 [ 0.1006; 0.5630] 0.2 2.9 passive
## 32 0.3908 [ 0.3293; 0.4522] 2.8 4.1 active
## 51 0.1280 [-0.0646; 0.3205] 0.3 3.2 active
## 66 0.0762 [ 0.0222; 0.1302] 3.6 4.1 passive
## 68 -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699] 0.9 3.9 active
## 69 0.5020 [ 0.3552; 0.6489] 0.5 3.6 passive
## 77 0.0613 [-0.8629; 0.9854] 0.0 0.5 active
## 87 -0.0138 [-0.0406; 0.0131] 14.4 4.2 active
## 88 -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997] 11.5 4.2 active
## 95 -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466] 1.6 4.0 active
## 104 0.3069 [ 0.2619; 0.3519] 5.1 4.2 active
## 109 0.4675 [ 0.2613; 0.6737] 0.2 3.1 active
## 111 0.0748 [ 0.0406; 0.1091] 8.9 4.2 active
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026] 25.2 4.2 active
## 135 0.0859 [ 0.0317; 0.1401] 3.5 4.1 passive
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882] 0.3 3.4 active
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924] 0.6 3.7 active
## 239 0.2968 [-0.1971; 0.7907] 0.0 1.4 passive
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950] 5.6 4.2 passive
## 256 0.0430 [-0.0941; 0.1801] 0.6 3.7 passive
##
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
##
## 95%-CI z p-value
## Fixed effect model -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58 0.5589
## Random effects model 0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882] 0.46 0.6459
##
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
##
## Test of heterogeneity:
## Q d.f. p-value
## 1047.16 27 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
## k 95%-CI Q tau^2 I^2
## paradigm = passive 9 0.0205 [-0.0014; 0.0423] 405.03 0.0643 98.0%
## paradigm = active 19 -0.0096 [-0.0211; 0.0019] 636.43 0.0262 97.2%
##
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 5.70 1 0.0170
## Within groups 1041.46 26 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
## k 95%-CI Q tau^2 I^2
## paradigm = passive 9 0.1278 [-0.0472; 0.3028] 405.03 0.0643 98.0%
## paradigm = active 19 -0.0315 [-0.1112; 0.0481] 636.43 0.0262 97.2%
##
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 2.64 1 0.1043
##
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m, xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = paradigm)
radial(m)
metabias(m, method = "linreg")
#technique
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = technique, data = tech.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m## 95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random)
## 1 0.1004 [-0.0416; 0.2424] 0.5 3.6
## 3 -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817] 0.9 3.9
## 6 0.1973 [-0.1756; 0.5702] 0.1 2.0
## 9 0.1901 [ 0.1523; 0.2280] 7.3 4.2
## 13 -0.0083 [-0.0913; 0.0747] 1.5 4.0
## 20 -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102] 2.1 4.1
## 29 -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073] 1.3 4.0
## 30 -0.0326 [-0.1910; 0.1257] 0.4 3.5
## 31 0.3318 [ 0.1006; 0.5630] 0.2 2.9
## 32 0.3908 [ 0.3293; 0.4522] 2.8 4.1
## 51 0.1280 [-0.0646; 0.3205] 0.3 3.2
## 66 0.0762 [ 0.0222; 0.1302] 3.6 4.1
## 68 -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699] 0.9 3.9
## 69 0.5020 [ 0.3552; 0.6489] 0.5 3.6
## 77 0.0613 [-0.8629; 0.9854] 0.0 0.5
## 87 -0.0138 [-0.0406; 0.0131] 14.4 4.2
## 88 -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997] 11.5 4.2
## 95 -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466] 1.6 4.0
## 104 0.3069 [ 0.2619; 0.3519] 5.1 4.2
## 109 0.4675 [ 0.2613; 0.6737] 0.2 3.1
## 111 0.0748 [ 0.0406; 0.1091] 8.9 4.2
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026] 25.2 4.2
## 135 0.0859 [ 0.0317; 0.1401] 3.5 4.1
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882] 0.3 3.4
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924] 0.6 3.7
## 239 0.2968 [-0.1971; 0.7907] 0.0 1.4
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950] 5.6 4.2
## 256 0.0430 [-0.0941; 0.1801] 0.6 3.7
## technique
## 1 litter crust
## 3 seeding, soil amendment
## 6 seeding, herbicides, activated carbon
## 9 fertile islands
## 13 planting
## 20 planting
## 29 planting, grazing exclusion
## 30 herbicide
## 31 seed arrival and retention
## 32 planting
## 51 planting, grazing exclusion
## 66 seeding, shrub facilitation
## 68 planting
## 69 grazing exclusion
## 77 mowing, grazing
## 87 fertilization, biostimulants, seeding
## 88 seeding
## 95 seeding, planting
## 104 mycorrhizal inoculation
## 109 seeding, mulching, weeding
## 111 planting
## 121 planting
## 135 natural recovery
## 147 seeding
## 210 carbon amendment
## 239 natural recovery
## 247 natural recovery
## 256 mycorrhizal fungi
##
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
##
## 95%-CI z p-value
## Fixed effect model -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58 0.5589
## Random effects model 0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882] 0.46 0.6459
##
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
##
## Test of heterogeneity:
## Q d.f. p-value
## 1047.16 27 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
## k
## technique = litter crust 1 0.1004
## technique = seeding, soil amendment 1 -0.1868
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... 1 0.1973
## technique = fertile islands 1 0.1901
## technique = planting 6 0.0098
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion 2 -0.2213
## technique = herbicide 1 -0.0326
## technique = seed arrival and retention 1 0.3318
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation 1 0.0762
## technique = grazing exclusion 1 0.5020
## technique = mowing, grazing 1 0.0613
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... 1 -0.0138
## technique = seeding 2 -0.1335
## technique = seeding, planting 1 -0.2280
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation 1 0.3069
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding 1 0.4675
## technique = natural recovery 3 -0.1721
## technique = carbon amendment 1 -0.3286
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi 1 0.0430
## 95%-CI Q
## technique = litter crust [-0.0416; 0.2424] 0.00
## technique = seeding, soil amendment [-0.2919; -0.0817] 0.00
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... [-0.1756; 0.5702] 0.00
## technique = fertile islands [ 0.1523; 0.2280] 0.00
## technique = planting [-0.0061; 0.0256] 248.37
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion [-0.3026; -0.1399] 15.38
## technique = herbicide [-0.1910; 0.1257] 0.00
## technique = seed arrival and retention [ 0.1006; 0.5630] 0.00
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation [ 0.0222; 0.1302] 0.00
## technique = grazing exclusion [ 0.3552; 0.6489] 0.00
## technique = mowing, grazing [-0.8629; 0.9854] 0.00
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... [-0.0406; 0.0131] 0.00
## technique = seeding [-0.1631; -0.1039] 2.18
## technique = seeding, planting [-0.3094; -0.1466] 0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation [ 0.2619; 0.3519] 0.00
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding [ 0.2613; 0.6737] 0.00
## technique = natural recovery [-0.2057; -0.1385] 147.89
## technique = carbon amendment [-0.4648; -0.1924] 0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi [-0.0941; 0.1801] 0.00
## tau^2 I^2
## technique = litter crust -- --
## technique = seeding, soil amendment -- --
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... -- --
## technique = fertile islands -- --
## technique = planting 0.0278 98.0%
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion 0.0845 93.5%
## technique = herbicide -- --
## technique = seed arrival and retention -- --
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation -- --
## technique = grazing exclusion -- --
## technique = mowing, grazing -- --
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... -- --
## technique = seeding 0.0049 54.1%
## technique = seeding, planting -- --
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation -- --
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding -- --
## technique = natural recovery 0.0894 98.6%
## technique = carbon amendment -- --
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi -- --
##
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 633.34 18 < 0.0001
## Within groups 413.82 9 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
## k
## technique = litter crust 1 0.1004
## technique = seeding, soil amendment 1 -0.1868
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... 1 0.1973
## technique = fertile islands 1 0.1901
## technique = planting 6 -0.0013
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion 2 -0.0934
## technique = herbicide 1 -0.0326
## technique = seed arrival and retention 1 0.3318
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation 1 0.0762
## technique = grazing exclusion 1 0.5020
## technique = mowing, grazing 1 0.0613
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... 1 -0.0138
## technique = seeding 2 -0.1678
## technique = seeding, planting 1 -0.2280
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation 1 0.3069
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding 1 0.4675
## technique = natural recovery 3 -0.0301
## technique = carbon amendment 1 -0.3286
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi 1 0.0430
## 95%-CI Q
## technique = litter crust [-0.0416; 0.2424] 0.00
## technique = seeding, soil amendment [-0.2919; -0.0817] 0.00
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... [-0.1756; 0.5702] 0.00
## technique = fertile islands [ 0.1523; 0.2280] 0.00
## technique = planting [-0.1376; 0.1350] 248.37
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion [-0.5096; 0.3227] 15.38
## technique = herbicide [-0.1910; 0.1257] 0.00
## technique = seed arrival and retention [ 0.1006; 0.5630] 0.00
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation [ 0.0222; 0.1302] 0.00
## technique = grazing exclusion [ 0.3552; 0.6489] 0.00
## technique = mowing, grazing [-0.8629; 0.9854] 0.00
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... [-0.0406; 0.0131] 0.00
## technique = seeding [-0.2867; -0.0490] 2.18
## technique = seeding, planting [-0.3094; -0.1466] 0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation [ 0.2619; 0.3519] 0.00
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding [ 0.2613; 0.6737] 0.00
## technique = natural recovery [-0.3956; 0.3354] 147.89
## technique = carbon amendment [-0.4648; -0.1924] 0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi [-0.0941; 0.1801] 0.00
## tau^2 I^2
## technique = litter crust -- --
## technique = seeding, soil amendment -- --
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated ... -- --
## technique = fertile islands -- --
## technique = planting 0.0278 98.0%
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion 0.0845 93.5%
## technique = herbicide -- --
## technique = seed arrival and retention -- --
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation -- --
## technique = grazing exclusion -- --
## technique = mowing, grazing -- --
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... -- --
## technique = seeding 0.0049 54.1%
## technique = seeding, planting -- --
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation -- --
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding -- --
## technique = natural recovery 0.0894 98.6%
## technique = carbon amendment -- --
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi -- --
##
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 361.83 18 < 0.0001
##
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m, xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = technique)
radial(m)
metabias(m, method = "linreg")
#measure
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = measure.success, data = success.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m## 95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random)
## 1 0.1004 [-0.0416; 0.2424] 0.5 3.6
## 2 NA 0.0 0.0
## 3 -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817] 0.9 3.9
## 4 NA 0.0 0.0
## 5 NA 0.0 0.0
## 6 0.1973 [-0.1756; 0.5702] 0.1 2.0
## 9 0.1901 [ 0.1523; 0.2280] 7.3 4.2
## 11 NA 0.0 0.0
## 12 NA 0.0 0.0
## 13 -0.0083 [-0.0913; 0.0747] 1.5 4.0
## 15 NA 0.0 0.0
## 16 NA 0.0 0.0
## 19 NA 0.0 0.0
## 20 -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102] 2.1 4.1
## 21 NA 0.0 0.0
## 23 NA 0.0 0.0
## 28 NA 0.0 0.0
## 29 -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073] 1.3 4.0
## 30 -0.0326 [-0.1910; 0.1257] 0.4 3.5
## 31 0.3318 [ 0.1006; 0.5630] 0.2 2.9
## 32 0.3908 [ 0.3293; 0.4522] 2.8 4.1
## 34 NA 0.0 0.0
## 35 NA 0.0 0.0
## 37 NA 0.0 0.0
## 39 NA 0.0 0.0
## 40 NA 0.0 0.0
## 41 NA 0.0 0.0
## 42 NA 0.0 0.0
## 43 NA 0.0 0.0
## 44 NA 0.0 0.0
## 45 NA 0.0 0.0
## 46 NA 0.0 0.0
## 48 NA 0.0 0.0
## 50 NA 0.0 0.0
## 51 0.1280 [-0.0646; 0.3205] 0.3 3.2
## 52 NA 0.0 0.0
## 53 NA 0.0 0.0
## 54 NA 0.0 0.0
## 55 NA 0.0 0.0
## 58 NA 0.0 0.0
## 59 NA 0.0 0.0
## 61 NA 0.0 0.0
## 63 NA 0.0 0.0
## 64 NA 0.0 0.0
## 65 NA 0.0 0.0
## 66 0.0762 [ 0.0222; 0.1302] 3.6 4.1
## 68 -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699] 0.9 3.9
## 69 0.5020 [ 0.3552; 0.6489] 0.5 3.6
## 71 NA 0.0 0.0
## 73 NA 0.0 0.0
## 74 NA 0.0 0.0
## 76 NA 0.0 0.0
## 77 0.0613 [-0.8629; 0.9854] 0.0 0.5
## 78 NA 0.0 0.0
## 80 NA 0.0 0.0
## 82 NA 0.0 0.0
## 84 NA 0.0 0.0
## 85 NA 0.0 0.0
## 86 NA 0.0 0.0
## 87 -0.0138 [-0.0406; 0.0131] 14.4 4.2
## 88 -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997] 11.5 4.2
## 89 NA 0.0 0.0
## 91 NA 0.0 0.0
## 93 NA 0.0 0.0
## 95 -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466] 1.6 4.0
## 96 NA 0.0 0.0
## 98 NA 0.0 0.0
## 100 NA 0.0 0.0
## 101 NA 0.0 0.0
## 104 0.3069 [ 0.2619; 0.3519] 5.1 4.2
## 105 NA 0.0 0.0
## 106 NA 0.0 0.0
## 107 NA 0.0 0.0
## 108 NA 0.0 0.0
## 109 0.4675 [ 0.2613; 0.6737] 0.2 3.1
## 110 NA 0.0 0.0
## 111 0.0748 [ 0.0406; 0.1091] 8.9 4.2
## 112 NA 0.0 0.0
## 114 NA 0.0 0.0
## 115 NA 0.0 0.0
## 118 NA 0.0 0.0
## 119 NA 0.0 0.0
## 120 NA 0.0 0.0
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026] 25.2 4.2
## 126 NA 0.0 0.0
## 127 NA 0.0 0.0
## 128 NA 0.0 0.0
## 129 NA 0.0 0.0
## 130 NA 0.0 0.0
## 132 NA 0.0 0.0
## 133 NA 0.0 0.0
## 134 NA 0.0 0.0
## 135 0.0859 [ 0.0317; 0.1401] 3.5 4.1
## 139 NA 0.0 0.0
## 141 NA 0.0 0.0
## 142 NA 0.0 0.0
## 143 NA 0.0 0.0
## 145 NA 0.0 0.0
## 146 NA 0.0 0.0
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882] 0.3 3.4
## 148 NA 0.0 0.0
## 149 NA 0.0 0.0
## 151 NA 0.0 0.0
## 152 NA 0.0 0.0
## 153 NA 0.0 0.0
## 154 NA 0.0 0.0
## 155 NA 0.0 0.0
## 157 NA 0.0 0.0
## 160 NA 0.0 0.0
## 161 NA 0.0 0.0
## 162 NA 0.0 0.0
## 164 NA 0.0 0.0
## 166 NA 0.0 0.0
## 167 NA 0.0 0.0
## 168 NA 0.0 0.0
## 169 NA 0.0 0.0
## 170 NA 0.0 0.0
## 171 NA 0.0 0.0
## 179 NA 0.0 0.0
## 180 NA 0.0 0.0
## 182 NA 0.0 0.0
## 188 NA 0.0 0.0
## 193 NA 0.0 0.0
## 194 NA 0.0 0.0
## 195 NA 0.0 0.0
## 197 NA 0.0 0.0
## 202 NA 0.0 0.0
## 204 NA 0.0 0.0
## 206 NA 0.0 0.0
## 207 NA 0.0 0.0
## 209 NA 0.0 0.0
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924] 0.6 3.7
## 211 NA 0.0 0.0
## 212 NA 0.0 0.0
## 213 NA 0.0 0.0
## 214 NA 0.0 0.0
## 218 NA 0.0 0.0
## 219 NA 0.0 0.0
## 220 NA 0.0 0.0
## 221 NA 0.0 0.0
## 223 NA 0.0 0.0
## 229 NA 0.0 0.0
## 230 NA 0.0 0.0
## 231 NA 0.0 0.0
## 232 NA 0.0 0.0
## 233 NA 0.0 0.0
## 235 NA 0.0 0.0
## 238 NA 0.0 0.0
## 239 0.2968 [-0.1971; 0.7907] 0.0 1.4
## 240 NA 0.0 0.0
## 241 NA 0.0 0.0
## 242 NA 0.0 0.0
## 243 NA 0.0 0.0
## 244 NA 0.0 0.0
## 245 NA 0.0 0.0
## 246 NA 0.0 0.0
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950] 5.6 4.2
## 248 NA 0.0 0.0
## 250 NA 0.0 0.0
## 251 NA 0.0 0.0
## 252 NA 0.0 0.0
## 253 NA 0.0 0.0
## 254 NA 0.0 0.0
## 255 NA 0.0 0.0
## 256 0.0430 [-0.0941; 0.1801] 0.6 3.7
## 259 NA 0.0 0.0
## 262 NA 0.0 0.0
## 263 NA 0.0 0.0
## 264 NA 0.0 0.0
## 267 NA 0.0 0.0
## 268 NA 0.0 0.0
## 269 NA 0.0 0.0
## 271 NA 0.0 0.0
## 274 NA 0.0 0.0
## 275 NA 0.0 0.0
## 276 NA 0.0 0.0
## 277 NA 0.0 0.0
## 278 NA 0.0 0.0
## measure.success
## 1 seedling establishment
## 2 native seed bank
## 3 Triodia wiseana establishment
## 4 nearby or landscape level vegetation
## 5 Artemisia terrae-albae communities
## 6 Agropyron desertorum seedlings
## 9 heterogeneous patterns of soil nutrients
## 11 increase in soil nutrients and enzyme activity
## 12 not clear
## 13 natural undisturbed communities
## 15 rest pastures
## 16 not clear
## 19 shrub plantations
## 20 desert steppe
## 21 Leymus secalinus community
## 23 grassland
## 28 fungal diversity
## 29 grassland vegetation and soil
## 30 lizard community
## 31 seed availability for restoration
## 32 improved soil physicochemical and biological properties
## 34 not clear
## 35 grassland before grazing
## 37 grassland
## 39 not clear
## 40 forest vegetation
## 41 not clear
## 42 not clear
## 43 native plant communities
## 44 perennial native grasses
## 45 natural vegetation
## 46 not clear
## 48 native plant communities
## 50 not clear
## 51 diverse arthropod community
## 52 perennial native grasses
## 53 native plant communities
## 54 native plant communities
## 55 native plant communities
## 58 facilitative effect
## 59 native plant communities
## 61 perennial native grasses
## 63 moss dominated soil crusts
## 64 later-successional community
## 65 native plant communities
## 66 grassland restoration
## 68 grassland restoration
## 69 vegetation regeneration
## 71 vegetation before disturbance
## 73 not clear
## 74 undegraded natural area
## 76 revegetation
## 77 Narduus grasslands
## 78 Narduus grasslands
## 80 not clear
## 82 soil carbon and enzyme of grasslands
## 84 endemic earthworm communities
## 85 agroecosystems
## 86 less invaded and soil recovered community
## 87 decreasing soil P-concentration
## 88 soil carbon and nitrogen of the original grassland
## 89 floral resources, cost effectiveness, pollinator attraction
## 91 plant diversity
## 93 native grasslands
## 95 remnant prairie vegetation
## 96 native vegetation
## 98 semi-natural grassland
## 100 native grasslands
## 101 stabilized sand land
## 104 native vegetation
## 105 undisturbed desert
## 106 plant establishment
## 107 revegetation
## 108 natural community
## 109 native shrubs establishment
## 110 revegetation
## 111 revegetation
## 112 native vegetation
## 114 native shrubs establishment
## 115 native vegetation
## 118 revegetation
## 119 native grasslands
## 120 reptile populations
## 121 revegetation
## 126 crusts of little disturbed sites
## 127 not clear
## 128 native shrub establishment
## 129 revegetation
## 130 revegetation
## 132 plant diversity
## 133 natural vegetation
## 134 native vegetation
## 135 native vegetation
## 139 soil water conservation
## 141 natural recovery
## 142 native vegetation
## 143 native grasslands
## 145 native vegetation
## 146 native vegetation
## 147 native perennial grasses
## 148 revegetation
## 149 native vegetation
## 151 microbial and vegetation recovery
## 152 native vegetation
## 153 pre-disturbance condition
## 154 native grasslands
## 155 undisturbed plant community
## 157 pre-disturbance condition
## 160 native vegetation
## 161 palatable grasses
## 162 revegetation
## 164 native vegetation
## 166 diverse community
## 167 native grasslands
## 168 revegetation
## 169 native vegetation
## 170 biomass
## 171 undisturbed vegetation
## 179 not clear
## 180 productive savanna
## 182 undisturbed soil
## 188 landscape functionality
## 193 not clear
## 194 undisturbed desert
## 195 not clear
## 197 not clear
## 202 not clear
## 204 not clear
## 206 native plant establishment
## 207 pre-disturbance condition
## 209 vegetation cover
## 210 endemic sand grassland
## 211 perennial vegetation
## 212 not clear
## 213 native vegetation and soil retention
## 214 native establishment, invasive control
## 218 not clear
## 219 soil and vegetation recovery
## 220 vegetation cover
## 221 not clear
## 223 not clear
## 229 original light grazing situation
## 230 intact site
## 231 not clear
## 232 native vegetation
## 233 not clear
## 235 pre-disturbance conditions
## 238 rangeland rehabilitation
## 239 native cerrado community
## 240 native vegetation
## 241 not clear
## 242 soil quality
## 243 not clear
## 244 not clear
## 245 not clear
## 246 not clear
## 247 soil properties of native forests
## 248 not clear
## 250 not clear
## 251 not clear
## 252 not clear
## 253 not clear
## 254 not clear
## 255 not clear
## 256 not clear
## 259 not clear
## 262 stable vegetation to deliver animal production.
## 263 not clear
## 264 not clear
## 267 not clear
## 268 not clear
## 269 not clear
## 271 not clear
## 274 native habitat
## 275 native vegetation
## 276 seventy percent vegetation cover of undisturbed sites
## 277 Atriplex canescens plants
## 278 native shrubland habitat
##
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
##
## 95%-CI z p-value
## Fixed effect model -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58 0.5589
## Random effects model 0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882] 0.46 0.6459
##
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
##
## Test of heterogeneity:
## Q d.f. p-value
## 1047.16 27 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
## k
## measure.success = seedling establishment 1 0.1004
## measure.success = native seed bank 0 NA
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment 1 -0.1868
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ... 0 NA
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities 0 NA
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings 1 0.1973
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... 1 0.1901
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ... 0 NA
## measure.success = not clear 1 0.0430
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities 1 -0.0083
## measure.success = rest pastures 0 NA
## measure.success = shrub plantations 0 NA
## measure.success = desert steppe 1 -0.2808
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland 0 NA
## measure.success = fungal diversity 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil 1 -0.2971
## measure.success = lizard community 1 -0.0326
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration 1 0.3318
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... 1 0.3908
## measure.success = grassland before grazing 0 NA
## measure.success = forest vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = native plant communities 0 NA
## measure.success = perennial native grasses 0 NA
## measure.success = natural vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community 1 0.1280
## measure.success = facilitative effect 0 NA
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts 0 NA
## measure.success = later-successional community 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland restoration 2 0.0250
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration 1 0.5020
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance 0 NA
## measure.success = undegraded natural area 0 NA
## measure.success = revegetation 2 0.0025
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands 1 0.0613
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ... 0 NA
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities 0 NA
## measure.success = agroecosystems 0 NA
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ... 0 NA
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration 1 -0.0138
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... 1 -0.1297
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ... 0 NA
## measure.success = plant diversity 0 NA
## measure.success = native grasslands 0 NA
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation 1 -0.2280
## measure.success = native vegetation 2 0.2166
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland 0 NA
## measure.success = stabilized sand land 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed desert 0 NA
## measure.success = plant establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = natural community 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment 1 0.4675
## measure.success = reptile populations 0 NA
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrub establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = soil water conservation 0 NA
## measure.success = natural recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = native perennial grasses 1 -0.2642
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community 0 NA
## measure.success = palatable grasses 0 NA
## measure.success = diverse community 0 NA
## measure.success = biomass 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = productive savanna 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed soil 0 NA
## measure.success = landscape functionality 0 NA
## measure.success = native plant establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = vegetation cover 0 NA
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland 1 -0.3286
## measure.success = perennial vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ... 0 NA
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ... 0 NA
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = original light grazing situation 0 NA
## measure.success = intact site 0 NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions 0 NA
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation 0 NA
## measure.success = native cerrado community 1 0.2968
## measure.success = soil quality 0 NA
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests 1 -0.3379
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ... 0 NA
## measure.success = native habitat 0 NA
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ... 0 NA
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat 0 NA
## 95%-CI
## measure.success = seedling establishment [-0.0416; 0.2424]
## measure.success = native seed bank
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment [-0.2919; -0.0817]
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings [-0.1756; 0.5702]
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... [ 0.1523; 0.2280]
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ...
## measure.success = not clear [-0.0941; 0.1801]
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities [-0.0913; 0.0747]
## measure.success = rest pastures
## measure.success = shrub plantations
## measure.success = desert steppe [-0.3514; -0.2102]
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community
## measure.success = grassland
## measure.success = fungal diversity
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil [-0.3868; -0.2073]
## measure.success = lizard community [-0.1910; 0.1257]
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration [ 0.1006; 0.5630]
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... [ 0.3293; 0.4522]
## measure.success = grassland before grazing
## measure.success = forest vegetation
## measure.success = native plant communities
## measure.success = perennial native grasses
## measure.success = natural vegetation
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community [-0.0646; 0.3205]
## measure.success = facilitative effect
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts
## measure.success = later-successional community
## measure.success = grassland restoration [-0.0232; 0.0733]
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration [ 0.3552; 0.6489]
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance
## measure.success = undegraded natural area
## measure.success = revegetation [-0.0149; 0.0200]
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands [-0.8629; 0.9854]
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities
## measure.success = agroecosystems
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration [-0.0406; 0.0131]
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... [-0.1597; -0.0997]
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...
## measure.success = plant diversity
## measure.success = native grasslands
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation [-0.3094; -0.1466]
## measure.success = native vegetation [ 0.1820; 0.2512]
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland
## measure.success = stabilized sand land
## measure.success = undisturbed desert
## measure.success = plant establishment
## measure.success = natural community
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment [ 0.2613; 0.6737]
## measure.success = reptile populations
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites
## measure.success = native shrub establishment
## measure.success = soil water conservation
## measure.success = natural recovery
## measure.success = native perennial grasses [-0.4402; -0.0882]
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community
## measure.success = palatable grasses
## measure.success = diverse community
## measure.success = biomass
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation
## measure.success = productive savanna
## measure.success = undisturbed soil
## measure.success = landscape functionality
## measure.success = native plant establishment
## measure.success = vegetation cover
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland [-0.4648; -0.1924]
## measure.success = perennial vegetation
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ...
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery
## measure.success = original light grazing situation
## measure.success = intact site
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation
## measure.success = native cerrado community [-0.1971; 0.7907]
## measure.success = soil quality
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests [-0.3809; -0.2950]
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...
## measure.success = native habitat
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat
## Q tau^2 I^2
## measure.success = seedling establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = native seed bank -- -- --
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ... -- -- --
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities -- -- --
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ... -- -- --
## measure.success = not clear 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = rest pastures -- -- --
## measure.success = shrub plantations -- -- --
## measure.success = desert steppe 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland -- -- --
## measure.success = fungal diversity -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = lizard community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = grassland before grazing -- -- --
## measure.success = forest vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = native plant communities -- -- --
## measure.success = perennial native grasses -- -- --
## measure.success = natural vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = facilitative effect -- -- --
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts -- -- --
## measure.success = later-successional community -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland restoration 17.09 0.0302 94.1%
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance -- -- --
## measure.success = undegraded natural area -- -- --
## measure.success = revegetation 23.19 0.0046 95.7%
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ... -- -- --
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities -- -- --
## measure.success = agroecosystems -- -- --
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ... -- -- --
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ... -- -- --
## measure.success = plant diversity -- -- --
## measure.success = native grasslands -- -- --
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = native vegetation 37.84 0.0238 97.4%
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland -- -- --
## measure.success = stabilized sand land -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed desert -- -- --
## measure.success = plant establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = natural community -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = reptile populations -- -- --
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrub establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = soil water conservation -- -- --
## measure.success = natural recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = native perennial grasses 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community -- -- --
## measure.success = palatable grasses -- -- --
## measure.success = diverse community -- -- --
## measure.success = biomass -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = productive savanna -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed soil -- -- --
## measure.success = landscape functionality -- -- --
## measure.success = native plant establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = vegetation cover -- -- --
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = perennial vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ... -- -- --
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ... -- -- --
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = original light grazing situation -- -- --
## measure.success = intact site -- -- --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions -- -- --
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation -- -- --
## measure.success = native cerrado community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil quality -- -- --
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ... -- -- --
## measure.success = native habitat -- -- --
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ... -- -- --
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat -- -- --
##
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 969.05 24 < 0.0001
## Within groups 78.11 3 < 0.0001
##
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
## k
## measure.success = seedling establishment 1 0.1004
## measure.success = native seed bank 0 NA
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment 1 -0.1868
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ... 0 NA
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities 0 NA
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings 1 0.1973
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... 1 0.1901
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ... 0 NA
## measure.success = not clear 1 0.0430
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities 1 -0.0083
## measure.success = rest pastures 0 NA
## measure.success = shrub plantations 0 NA
## measure.success = desert steppe 1 -0.2808
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland 0 NA
## measure.success = fungal diversity 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil 1 -0.2971
## measure.success = lizard community 1 -0.0326
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration 1 0.3318
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... 1 0.3908
## measure.success = grassland before grazing 0 NA
## measure.success = forest vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = native plant communities 0 NA
## measure.success = perennial native grasses 0 NA
## measure.success = natural vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community 1 0.1280
## measure.success = facilitative effect 0 NA
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts 0 NA
## measure.success = later-successional community 0 NA
## measure.success = grassland restoration 2 -0.0461
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration 1 0.5020
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance 0 NA
## measure.success = undegraded natural area 0 NA
## measure.success = revegetation 2 0.0250
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands 1 0.0613
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ... 0 NA
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities 0 NA
## measure.success = agroecosystems 0 NA
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ... 0 NA
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration 1 -0.0138
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... 1 -0.1297
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ... 0 NA
## measure.success = plant diversity 0 NA
## measure.success = native grasslands 0 NA
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation 1 -0.2280
## measure.success = native vegetation 2 0.1969
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland 0 NA
## measure.success = stabilized sand land 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed desert 0 NA
## measure.success = plant establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = natural community 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment 1 0.4675
## measure.success = reptile populations 0 NA
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrub establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = soil water conservation 0 NA
## measure.success = natural recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = native perennial grasses 1 -0.2642
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community 0 NA
## measure.success = palatable grasses 0 NA
## measure.success = diverse community 0 NA
## measure.success = biomass 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = productive savanna 0 NA
## measure.success = undisturbed soil 0 NA
## measure.success = landscape functionality 0 NA
## measure.success = native plant establishment 0 NA
## measure.success = vegetation cover 0 NA
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland 1 -0.3286
## measure.success = perennial vegetation 0 NA
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ... 0 NA
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ... 0 NA
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery 0 NA
## measure.success = original light grazing situation 0 NA
## measure.success = intact site 0 NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions 0 NA
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation 0 NA
## measure.success = native cerrado community 1 0.2968
## measure.success = soil quality 0 NA
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests 1 -0.3379
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ... 0 NA
## measure.success = native habitat 0 NA
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ... 0 NA
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants 0 NA
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat 0 NA
## 95%-CI
## measure.success = seedling establishment [-0.0416; 0.2424]
## measure.success = native seed bank
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment [-0.2919; -0.0817]
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings [-0.1756; 0.5702]
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... [ 0.1523; 0.2280]
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ...
## measure.success = not clear [-0.0941; 0.1801]
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities [-0.0913; 0.0747]
## measure.success = rest pastures
## measure.success = shrub plantations
## measure.success = desert steppe [-0.3514; -0.2102]
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community
## measure.success = grassland
## measure.success = fungal diversity
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil [-0.3868; -0.2073]
## measure.success = lizard community [-0.1910; 0.1257]
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration [ 0.1006; 0.5630]
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... [ 0.3293; 0.4522]
## measure.success = grassland before grazing
## measure.success = forest vegetation
## measure.success = native plant communities
## measure.success = perennial native grasses
## measure.success = natural vegetation
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community [-0.0646; 0.3205]
## measure.success = facilitative effect
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts
## measure.success = later-successional community
## measure.success = grassland restoration [-0.2943; 0.2021]
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration [ 0.3552; 0.6489]
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance
## measure.success = undegraded natural area
## measure.success = revegetation [-0.0708; 0.1207]
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands [-0.8629; 0.9854]
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities
## measure.success = agroecosystems
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration [-0.0406; 0.0131]
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... [-0.1597; -0.0997]
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...
## measure.success = plant diversity
## measure.success = native grasslands
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation [-0.3094; -0.1466]
## measure.success = native vegetation [-0.0196; 0.4135]
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland
## measure.success = stabilized sand land
## measure.success = undisturbed desert
## measure.success = plant establishment
## measure.success = natural community
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment [ 0.2613; 0.6737]
## measure.success = reptile populations
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites
## measure.success = native shrub establishment
## measure.success = soil water conservation
## measure.success = natural recovery
## measure.success = native perennial grasses [-0.4402; -0.0882]
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community
## measure.success = palatable grasses
## measure.success = diverse community
## measure.success = biomass
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation
## measure.success = productive savanna
## measure.success = undisturbed soil
## measure.success = landscape functionality
## measure.success = native plant establishment
## measure.success = vegetation cover
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland [-0.4648; -0.1924]
## measure.success = perennial vegetation
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ...
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery
## measure.success = original light grazing situation
## measure.success = intact site
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation
## measure.success = native cerrado community [-0.1971; 0.7907]
## measure.success = soil quality
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests [-0.3809; -0.2950]
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...
## measure.success = native habitat
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat
## Q tau^2 I^2
## measure.success = seedling establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = native seed bank -- -- --
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ... -- -- --
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities -- -- --
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and ... -- -- --
## measure.success = not clear 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = rest pastures -- -- --
## measure.success = shrub plantations -- -- --
## measure.success = desert steppe 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland -- -- --
## measure.success = fungal diversity -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = lizard community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = grassland before grazing -- -- --
## measure.success = forest vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = native plant communities -- -- --
## measure.success = perennial native grasses -- -- --
## measure.success = natural vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = facilitative effect -- -- --
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts -- -- --
## measure.success = later-successional community -- -- --
## measure.success = grassland restoration 17.09 0.0302 94.1%
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance -- -- --
## measure.success = undegraded natural area -- -- --
## measure.success = revegetation 23.19 0.0046 95.7%
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ... -- -- --
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities -- -- --
## measure.success = agroecosystems -- -- --
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ... -- -- --
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ... -- -- --
## measure.success = plant diversity -- -- --
## measure.success = native grasslands -- -- --
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = native vegetation 37.84 0.0238 97.4%
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland -- -- --
## measure.success = stabilized sand land -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed desert -- -- --
## measure.success = plant establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = natural community -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = reptile populations -- -- --
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrub establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = soil water conservation -- -- --
## measure.success = natural recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = native perennial grasses 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community -- -- --
## measure.success = palatable grasses -- -- --
## measure.success = diverse community -- -- --
## measure.success = biomass -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = productive savanna -- -- --
## measure.success = undisturbed soil -- -- --
## measure.success = landscape functionality -- -- --
## measure.success = native plant establishment -- -- --
## measure.success = vegetation cover -- -- --
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = perennial vegetation -- -- --
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ... -- -- --
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive ... -- -- --
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery -- -- --
## measure.success = original light grazing situation -- -- --
## measure.success = intact site -- -- --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions -- -- --
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation -- -- --
## measure.success = native cerrado community 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = soil quality -- -- --
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests 0.00 -- --
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ... -- -- --
## measure.success = native habitat -- -- --
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ... -- -- --
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants -- -- --
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat -- -- --
##
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
## Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups 784.78 24 < 0.0001
##
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m, xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = measure.success)
radial(m)
metabias(m, method = "linreg")
#lrr####