A synthesis of dryland restoration techniques.

Purpose

To quantitatively examine the efficacy of vegetation restoration in drylands globally.

Questions

  1. What is the global extent of research that directly examined restoration of drylands?
  2. What were the common measures?
  3. Is the restoration of vegetation a common and primary focus?
  4. How frequently does the restoration measure outcomes beyond the focal species?
  5. What were the primary restoration goals as reported by primary authors?
  6. How much variation was there in the techniques tested and how long were experiments monitored and tested?
  7. How relatively effective were the techniques?

Step 2. Sort

A summary of sort process using PRISMA.

library(PRISMAstatement)
prisma(found = 1504,
       found_other = 5,
       no_dupes = 1039, 
       screened = 1039, 
       screen_exclusions = 861, 
       full_text = 178,
       full_text_exclusions = 100, 
       qualitative = 100, 
       quantitative = 78,
       width = 800, height = 800)

Step 3. Synthesize

Check data and calculate necessary measures.

data <- read_csv("data/data.csv")
data <- data %>%
  mutate(lrr = log(mean.t/mean.c), rii = ((mean.t-mean.c)/(mean.t + mean.c)), var.es = ((sd.t^2/n.t*mean.t^2) + (sd.c^2/n.c*mean.c^2)))
data
## # A tibble: 3,367 x 48
##    study.ID    ID publication.year data.year exp.year `exp.length (mo…
##       <dbl> <dbl>            <dbl>     <dbl>    <dbl>            <dbl>
##  1        1   1.1             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  2        1   1.1             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  3        1   1.1             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  4        1   1.2             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  5        1   1.2             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  6        1   1.2             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  7        1   1.3             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  8        1   1.3             2018        NA       NA               NA
##  9        1   1.3             2018        NA       NA               NA
## 10        1   1.4             2018        NA       NA               NA
## # ... with 3,357 more rows, and 42 more variables: disturbance <chr>,
## #   focus <chr>, technique <chr>, paradigm <chr>, hypothesis <chr>,
## #   pathway <chr>, plant.species <chr>, target.plant <chr>,
## #   measure.success <chr>, measured.factor <chr>, factor.levels <chr>,
## #   treatment <chr>, control <chr>, unit <chr>, Nsites <dbl>, n.t <dbl>,
## #   n.c <dbl>, ntotalsamples <dbl>, mean.t <dbl>, mean.c <dbl>,
## #   sd.t <dbl>, sd.c <dbl>, se.t <dbl>, se.c <dbl>, `p-value` <dbl>,
## #   df <dbl>, measure.dispersion <chr>, lat <dbl>, long <dbl>,
## #   continent <chr>, country <chr>, ecosystem <chr>, `elevation
## #   (m)` <dbl>, `MAP (mm)` <dbl>, aridity.index <dbl>,
## #   `potential.evaporation (mm)` <dbl>, grazing <chr>, soil <chr>,
## #   notes <chr>, lrr <dbl>, rii <dbl>, var.es <dbl>
#consider adding some other effect size measures and/or study-level data too

Step 4. Summarize

Explore summary level data of all data. Explore aggregation levels that support the most reasonable data structure and minimize non-independence issues.

#evidence map####
require(maps)
world<-map_data("world")
map<-ggplot() + geom_polygon(data=world, fill="gray50", aes(x=long, y=lat, group=group))
map + geom_point(data=data, aes(x=long, y=lat)) #render a literal map, i.e. evidence map, of where we study the niche in deserts globally

#aggregation####
data.simple <- data %>%
  group_by(study.ID, paradigm, technique, measure.success) %>%
  summarise(n = n(), mean.lrr = mean(lrr), mean.rii = mean(rii), mean.var = mean(var.es))

se <- function(x){
  sd(x)/sqrt(length(x))
}

simple.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, paradigm) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
simple.data <- na.omit(simple.data)

tech.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, technique) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
tech.data <- na.omit(tech.data)

success.data <- data %>% group_by(study.ID, measure.success) %>% summarise(mean.rii = mean(rii), error = se(rii))
sucsess.data <- na.omit(success.data)

#viz for aggregation####
ggplot(na.omit(data.simple), aes(technique, n, fill = paradigm)) + 
  geom_bar(stat = "identity") + 
  coord_flip() + 
  scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired")

ggplot(na.omit(data.simple), aes(measure.success, n, fill = paradigm)) + 
  geom_bar(stat = "identity") + 
  coord_flip() + 
  scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Paired")

Step 5. Statistics

Meta and conventional statistical models to explore relative efficacy.

library(plotrix) #for quick s.e. calculations sometimes needed for data tidy step
library(meta) #nice package for most meta-statistics

#assign model (typically a nice meta. function from one of several packages such as meta, metafor, or netmeta)

#need to write a quick function here to iterate and/or up split-map from broom

#rii####
#paradigm
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = paradigm, data = simple.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m
##                         95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random) paradigm
## 1    0.1004 [-0.0416;  0.2424]       0.5        3.6  passive
## 3   -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817]       0.9        3.9   active
## 6    0.1973 [-0.1756;  0.5702]       0.1        2.0   active
## 9    0.1901 [ 0.1523;  0.2280]       7.3        4.2  passive
## 13  -0.0083 [-0.0913;  0.0747]       1.5        4.0   active
## 20  -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102]       2.1        4.1   active
## 29  -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073]       1.3        4.0   active
## 30  -0.0326 [-0.1910;  0.1257]       0.4        3.5   active
## 31   0.3318 [ 0.1006;  0.5630]       0.2        2.9  passive
## 32   0.3908 [ 0.3293;  0.4522]       2.8        4.1   active
## 51   0.1280 [-0.0646;  0.3205]       0.3        3.2   active
## 66   0.0762 [ 0.0222;  0.1302]       3.6        4.1  passive
## 68  -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699]       0.9        3.9   active
## 69   0.5020 [ 0.3552;  0.6489]       0.5        3.6  passive
## 77   0.0613 [-0.8629;  0.9854]       0.0        0.5   active
## 87  -0.0138 [-0.0406;  0.0131]      14.4        4.2   active
## 88  -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997]      11.5        4.2   active
## 95  -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466]       1.6        4.0   active
## 104  0.3069 [ 0.2619;  0.3519]       5.1        4.2   active
## 109  0.4675 [ 0.2613;  0.6737]       0.2        3.1   active
## 111  0.0748 [ 0.0406;  0.1091]       8.9        4.2   active
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026]      25.2        4.2   active
## 135  0.0859 [ 0.0317;  0.1401]       3.5        4.1  passive
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882]       0.3        3.4   active
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924]       0.6        3.7   active
## 239  0.2968 [-0.1971;  0.7907]       0.0        1.4  passive
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950]       5.6        4.2  passive
## 256  0.0430 [-0.0941;  0.1801]       0.6        3.7  passive
## 
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
## 
##                                         95%-CI     z p-value
## Fixed effect model   -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58  0.5589
## Random effects model  0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882]  0.46  0.6459
## 
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
## 
## Test of heterogeneity:
##        Q d.f.  p-value
##  1047.16   27 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
##                      k                    95%-CI      Q  tau^2   I^2
## paradigm = passive   9  0.0205 [-0.0014; 0.0423] 405.03 0.0643 98.0%
## paradigm = active   19 -0.0096 [-0.0211; 0.0019] 636.43 0.0262 97.2%
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
##                      Q d.f.  p-value
## Between groups    5.70    1   0.0170
## Within groups  1041.46   26 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
##                      k                    95%-CI      Q  tau^2   I^2
## paradigm = passive   9  0.1278 [-0.0472; 0.3028] 405.03 0.0643 98.0%
## paradigm = active   19 -0.0315 [-0.1112; 0.0481] 636.43 0.0262 97.2%
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
##                     Q d.f. p-value
## Between groups   2.64    1  0.1043
## 
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2
#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m,  xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = paradigm)

radial(m)

metabias(m, method = "linreg")

#technique
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = technique, data = tech.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m
##                         95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random)
## 1    0.1004 [-0.0416;  0.2424]       0.5        3.6
## 3   -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817]       0.9        3.9
## 6    0.1973 [-0.1756;  0.5702]       0.1        2.0
## 9    0.1901 [ 0.1523;  0.2280]       7.3        4.2
## 13  -0.0083 [-0.0913;  0.0747]       1.5        4.0
## 20  -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102]       2.1        4.1
## 29  -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073]       1.3        4.0
## 30  -0.0326 [-0.1910;  0.1257]       0.4        3.5
## 31   0.3318 [ 0.1006;  0.5630]       0.2        2.9
## 32   0.3908 [ 0.3293;  0.4522]       2.8        4.1
## 51   0.1280 [-0.0646;  0.3205]       0.3        3.2
## 66   0.0762 [ 0.0222;  0.1302]       3.6        4.1
## 68  -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699]       0.9        3.9
## 69   0.5020 [ 0.3552;  0.6489]       0.5        3.6
## 77   0.0613 [-0.8629;  0.9854]       0.0        0.5
## 87  -0.0138 [-0.0406;  0.0131]      14.4        4.2
## 88  -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997]      11.5        4.2
## 95  -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466]       1.6        4.0
## 104  0.3069 [ 0.2619;  0.3519]       5.1        4.2
## 109  0.4675 [ 0.2613;  0.6737]       0.2        3.1
## 111  0.0748 [ 0.0406;  0.1091]       8.9        4.2
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026]      25.2        4.2
## 135  0.0859 [ 0.0317;  0.1401]       3.5        4.1
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882]       0.3        3.4
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924]       0.6        3.7
## 239  0.2968 [-0.1971;  0.7907]       0.0        1.4
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950]       5.6        4.2
## 256  0.0430 [-0.0941;  0.1801]       0.6        3.7
##                                 technique
## 1                            litter crust
## 3                 seeding, soil amendment
## 6   seeding, herbicides, activated carbon
## 9                         fertile islands
## 13                               planting
## 20                               planting
## 29            planting, grazing exclusion
## 30                              herbicide
## 31             seed arrival and retention
## 32                               planting
## 51            planting, grazing exclusion
## 66            seeding, shrub facilitation
## 68                               planting
## 69                      grazing exclusion
## 77                        mowing, grazing
## 87  fertilization, biostimulants, seeding
## 88                                seeding
## 95                      seeding, planting
## 104               mycorrhizal inoculation
## 109            seeding, mulching, weeding
## 111                              planting
## 121                              planting
## 135                      natural recovery
## 147                               seeding
## 210                      carbon amendment
## 239                      natural recovery
## 247                      natural recovery
## 256                     mycorrhizal fungi
## 
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
## 
##                                         95%-CI     z p-value
## Fixed effect model   -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58  0.5589
## Random effects model  0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882]  0.46  0.6459
## 
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
## 
## Test of heterogeneity:
##        Q d.f.  p-value
##  1047.16   27 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
##                                                   k        
## technique = litter crust                          1  0.1004
## technique = seeding, soil amendment               1 -0.1868
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ...   1  0.1973
## technique = fertile islands                       1  0.1901
## technique = planting                              6  0.0098
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion           2 -0.2213
## technique = herbicide                             1 -0.0326
## technique = seed arrival and retention            1  0.3318
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation           1  0.0762
## technique = grazing exclusion                     1  0.5020
## technique = mowing, grazing                       1  0.0613
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ...   1 -0.0138
## technique = seeding                               2 -0.1335
## technique = seeding, planting                     1 -0.2280
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation               1  0.3069
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding            1  0.4675
## technique = natural recovery                      3 -0.1721
## technique = carbon amendment                      1 -0.3286
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                     1  0.0430
##                                                             95%-CI      Q
## technique = litter crust                        [-0.0416;  0.2424]   0.00
## technique = seeding, soil amendment             [-0.2919; -0.0817]   0.00
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ... [-0.1756;  0.5702]   0.00
## technique = fertile islands                     [ 0.1523;  0.2280]   0.00
## technique = planting                            [-0.0061;  0.0256] 248.37
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion         [-0.3026; -0.1399]  15.38
## technique = herbicide                           [-0.1910;  0.1257]   0.00
## technique = seed arrival and retention          [ 0.1006;  0.5630]   0.00
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation         [ 0.0222;  0.1302]   0.00
## technique = grazing exclusion                   [ 0.3552;  0.6489]   0.00
## technique = mowing, grazing                     [-0.8629;  0.9854]   0.00
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... [-0.0406;  0.0131]   0.00
## technique = seeding                             [-0.1631; -0.1039]   2.18
## technique = seeding, planting                   [-0.3094; -0.1466]   0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation             [ 0.2619;  0.3519]   0.00
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding          [ 0.2613;  0.6737]   0.00
## technique = natural recovery                    [-0.2057; -0.1385] 147.89
## technique = carbon amendment                    [-0.4648; -0.1924]   0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                   [-0.0941;  0.1801]   0.00
##                                                  tau^2   I^2
## technique = litter crust                            --    --
## technique = seeding, soil amendment                 --    --
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ...     --    --
## technique = fertile islands                         --    --
## technique = planting                            0.0278 98.0%
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion         0.0845 93.5%
## technique = herbicide                               --    --
## technique = seed arrival and retention              --    --
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation             --    --
## technique = grazing exclusion                       --    --
## technique = mowing, grazing                         --    --
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ...     --    --
## technique = seeding                             0.0049 54.1%
## technique = seeding, planting                       --    --
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation                 --    --
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding              --    --
## technique = natural recovery                    0.0894 98.6%
## technique = carbon amendment                        --    --
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                       --    --
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
##                     Q d.f.  p-value
## Between groups 633.34   18 < 0.0001
## Within groups  413.82    9 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
##                                                   k        
## technique = litter crust                          1  0.1004
## technique = seeding, soil amendment               1 -0.1868
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ...   1  0.1973
## technique = fertile islands                       1  0.1901
## technique = planting                              6 -0.0013
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion           2 -0.0934
## technique = herbicide                             1 -0.0326
## technique = seed arrival and retention            1  0.3318
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation           1  0.0762
## technique = grazing exclusion                     1  0.5020
## technique = mowing, grazing                       1  0.0613
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ...   1 -0.0138
## technique = seeding                               2 -0.1678
## technique = seeding, planting                     1 -0.2280
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation               1  0.3069
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding            1  0.4675
## technique = natural recovery                      3 -0.0301
## technique = carbon amendment                      1 -0.3286
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                     1  0.0430
##                                                             95%-CI      Q
## technique = litter crust                        [-0.0416;  0.2424]   0.00
## technique = seeding, soil amendment             [-0.2919; -0.0817]   0.00
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ... [-0.1756;  0.5702]   0.00
## technique = fertile islands                     [ 0.1523;  0.2280]   0.00
## technique = planting                            [-0.1376;  0.1350] 248.37
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion         [-0.5096;  0.3227]  15.38
## technique = herbicide                           [-0.1910;  0.1257]   0.00
## technique = seed arrival and retention          [ 0.1006;  0.5630]   0.00
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation         [ 0.0222;  0.1302]   0.00
## technique = grazing exclusion                   [ 0.3552;  0.6489]   0.00
## technique = mowing, grazing                     [-0.8629;  0.9854]   0.00
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ... [-0.0406;  0.0131]   0.00
## technique = seeding                             [-0.2867; -0.0490]   2.18
## technique = seeding, planting                   [-0.3094; -0.1466]   0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation             [ 0.2619;  0.3519]   0.00
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding          [ 0.2613;  0.6737]   0.00
## technique = natural recovery                    [-0.3956;  0.3354] 147.89
## technique = carbon amendment                    [-0.4648; -0.1924]   0.00
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                   [-0.0941;  0.1801]   0.00
##                                                  tau^2   I^2
## technique = litter crust                            --    --
## technique = seeding, soil amendment                 --    --
## technique = seeding, herbicides, activated  ...     --    --
## technique = fertile islands                         --    --
## technique = planting                            0.0278 98.0%
## technique = planting, grazing exclusion         0.0845 93.5%
## technique = herbicide                               --    --
## technique = seed arrival and retention              --    --
## technique = seeding, shrub facilitation             --    --
## technique = grazing exclusion                       --    --
## technique = mowing, grazing                         --    --
## technique = fertilization, biostimulants, s ...     --    --
## technique = seeding                             0.0049 54.1%
## technique = seeding, planting                       --    --
## technique = mycorrhizal inoculation                 --    --
## technique = seeding, mulching, weeding              --    --
## technique = natural recovery                    0.0894 98.6%
## technique = carbon amendment                        --    --
## technique = mycorrhizal fungi                       --    --
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
##                       Q d.f.  p-value
## Between groups   361.83   18 < 0.0001
## 
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2
#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m,  xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = technique)

radial(m)

metabias(m, method = "linreg")

#measure
m <- metagen(mean.rii, error, studlab = study.ID, byvar = measure.success, data = success.data) #fit generic meta-analysis to an object
m
##                         95%-CI %W(fixed) %W(random)
## 1    0.1004 [-0.0416;  0.2424]       0.5        3.6
## 2        NA                          0.0        0.0
## 3   -0.1868 [-0.2919; -0.0817]       0.9        3.9
## 4        NA                          0.0        0.0
## 5        NA                          0.0        0.0
## 6    0.1973 [-0.1756;  0.5702]       0.1        2.0
## 9    0.1901 [ 0.1523;  0.2280]       7.3        4.2
## 11       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 12       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 13  -0.0083 [-0.0913;  0.0747]       1.5        4.0
## 15       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 16       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 19       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 20  -0.2808 [-0.3514; -0.2102]       2.1        4.1
## 21       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 23       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 28       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 29  -0.2971 [-0.3868; -0.2073]       1.3        4.0
## 30  -0.0326 [-0.1910;  0.1257]       0.4        3.5
## 31   0.3318 [ 0.1006;  0.5630]       0.2        2.9
## 32   0.3908 [ 0.3293;  0.4522]       2.8        4.1
## 34       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 35       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 37       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 39       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 40       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 41       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 42       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 43       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 44       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 45       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 46       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 48       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 50       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 51   0.1280 [-0.0646;  0.3205]       0.3        3.2
## 52       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 53       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 54       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 55       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 58       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 59       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 61       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 63       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 64       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 65       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 66   0.0762 [ 0.0222;  0.1302]       3.6        4.1
## 68  -0.1772 [-0.2845; -0.0699]       0.9        3.9
## 69   0.5020 [ 0.3552;  0.6489]       0.5        3.6
## 71       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 73       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 74       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 76       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 77   0.0613 [-0.8629;  0.9854]       0.0        0.5
## 78       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 80       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 82       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 84       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 85       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 86       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 87  -0.0138 [-0.0406;  0.0131]      14.4        4.2
## 88  -0.1297 [-0.1597; -0.0997]      11.5        4.2
## 89       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 91       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 93       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 95  -0.2280 [-0.3094; -0.1466]       1.6        4.0
## 96       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 98       NA                          0.0        0.0
## 100      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 101      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 104  0.3069 [ 0.2619;  0.3519]       5.1        4.2
## 105      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 106      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 107      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 108      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 109  0.4675 [ 0.2613;  0.6737]       0.2        3.1
## 110      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 111  0.0748 [ 0.0406;  0.1091]       8.9        4.2
## 112      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 114      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 115      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 118      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 119      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 120      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 121 -0.0229 [-0.0432; -0.0026]      25.2        4.2
## 126      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 127      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 128      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 129      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 130      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 132      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 133      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 134      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 135  0.0859 [ 0.0317;  0.1401]       3.5        4.1
## 139      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 141      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 142      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 143      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 145      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 146      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 147 -0.2642 [-0.4402; -0.0882]       0.3        3.4
## 148      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 149      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 151      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 152      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 153      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 154      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 155      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 157      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 160      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 161      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 162      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 164      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 166      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 167      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 168      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 169      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 170      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 171      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 179      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 180      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 182      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 188      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 193      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 194      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 195      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 197      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 202      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 204      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 206      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 207      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 209      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 210 -0.3286 [-0.4648; -0.1924]       0.6        3.7
## 211      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 212      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 213      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 214      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 218      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 219      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 220      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 221      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 223      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 229      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 230      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 231      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 232      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 233      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 235      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 238      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 239  0.2968 [-0.1971;  0.7907]       0.0        1.4
## 240      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 241      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 242      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 243      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 244      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 245      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 246      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 247 -0.3379 [-0.3809; -0.2950]       5.6        4.2
## 248      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 250      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 251      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 252      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 253      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 254      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 255      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 256  0.0430 [-0.0941;  0.1801]       0.6        3.7
## 259      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 262      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 263      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 264      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 267      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 268      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 269      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 271      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 274      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 275      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 276      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 277      NA                          0.0        0.0
## 278      NA                          0.0        0.0
##                                                 measure.success
## 1                                        seedling establishment
## 2                                              native seed bank
## 3                                 Triodia wiseana establishment
## 4                          nearby or landscape level vegetation
## 5                            Artemisia terrae-albae communities
## 6                                Agropyron desertorum seedlings
## 9                      heterogeneous patterns of soil nutrients
## 11               increase in soil nutrients and enzyme activity
## 12                                                    not clear
## 13                              natural undisturbed communities
## 15                                                rest pastures
## 16                                                    not clear
## 19                                            shrub plantations
## 20                                                desert steppe
## 21                                   Leymus secalinus community
## 23                                                    grassland
## 28                                             fungal diversity
## 29                                grassland vegetation and soil
## 30                                             lizard community
## 31                            seed availability for restoration
## 32      improved soil physicochemical and biological properties
## 34                                                    not clear
## 35                                     grassland before grazing
## 37                                                    grassland
## 39                                                    not clear
## 40                                            forest vegetation
## 41                                                    not clear
## 42                                                    not clear
## 43                                     native plant communities
## 44                                     perennial native grasses
## 45                                           natural vegetation
## 46                                                    not clear
## 48                                     native plant communities
## 50                                                    not clear
## 51                                  diverse arthropod community
## 52                                     perennial native grasses
## 53                                     native plant communities
## 54                                     native plant communities
## 55                                     native plant communities
## 58                                          facilitative effect
## 59                                     native plant communities
## 61                                     perennial native grasses
## 63                                   moss dominated soil crusts
## 64                                 later-successional community
## 65                                     native plant communities
## 66                                        grassland restoration
## 68                                        grassland restoration
## 69                                      vegetation regeneration
## 71                                vegetation before disturbance
## 73                                                    not clear
## 74                                      undegraded natural area
## 76                                                 revegetation
## 77                                           Narduus grasslands
## 78                                           Narduus grasslands
## 80                                                    not clear
## 82                         soil carbon and enzyme of grasslands
## 84                                endemic earthworm communities
## 85                                               agroecosystems
## 86                    less invaded and soil recovered community
## 87                              decreasing soil P-concentration
## 88           soil carbon and nitrogen of the original grassland
## 89  floral resources, cost effectiveness, pollinator attraction
## 91                                              plant diversity
## 93                                            native grasslands
## 95                                   remnant prairie vegetation
## 96                                            native vegetation
## 98                                       semi-natural grassland
## 100                                           native grasslands
## 101                                        stabilized sand land
## 104                                           native vegetation
## 105                                          undisturbed desert
## 106                                         plant establishment
## 107                                                revegetation
## 108                                           natural community
## 109                                 native shrubs establishment
## 110                                                revegetation
## 111                                                revegetation
## 112                                           native vegetation
## 114                                 native shrubs establishment
## 115                                           native vegetation
## 118                                                revegetation
## 119                                           native grasslands
## 120                                         reptile populations
## 121                                                revegetation
## 126                            crusts of little disturbed sites
## 127                                                   not clear
## 128                                  native shrub establishment
## 129                                                revegetation
## 130                                                revegetation
## 132                                             plant diversity
## 133                                          natural vegetation
## 134                                           native vegetation
## 135                                           native vegetation
## 139                                     soil water conservation
## 141                                            natural recovery
## 142                                           native vegetation
## 143                                           native grasslands
## 145                                           native vegetation
## 146                                           native vegetation
## 147                                    native perennial grasses
## 148                                                revegetation
## 149                                           native vegetation
## 151                           microbial and vegetation recovery
## 152                                           native vegetation
## 153                                   pre-disturbance condition
## 154                                           native grasslands
## 155                                 undisturbed plant community
## 157                                   pre-disturbance condition
## 160                                           native vegetation
## 161                                           palatable grasses
## 162                                                revegetation
## 164                                           native vegetation
## 166                                           diverse community
## 167                                           native grasslands
## 168                                                revegetation
## 169                                           native vegetation
## 170                                                     biomass
## 171                                      undisturbed vegetation
## 179                                                   not clear
## 180                                          productive savanna
## 182                                            undisturbed soil
## 188                                     landscape functionality
## 193                                                   not clear
## 194                                          undisturbed desert
## 195                                                   not clear
## 197                                                   not clear
## 202                                                   not clear
## 204                                                   not clear
## 206                                  native plant establishment
## 207                                   pre-disturbance condition
## 209                                            vegetation cover
## 210                                      endemic sand grassland
## 211                                        perennial vegetation
## 212                                                   not clear
## 213                        native vegetation and soil retention
## 214                      native establishment, invasive control
## 218                                                   not clear
## 219                                soil and vegetation recovery
## 220                                            vegetation cover
## 221                                                   not clear
## 223                                                   not clear
## 229                            original light grazing situation
## 230                                                 intact site
## 231                                                   not clear
## 232                                           native vegetation
## 233                                                   not clear
## 235                                  pre-disturbance conditions
## 238                                    rangeland rehabilitation
## 239                                    native cerrado community
## 240                                           native vegetation
## 241                                                   not clear
## 242                                                soil quality
## 243                                                   not clear
## 244                                                   not clear
## 245                                                   not clear
## 246                                                   not clear
## 247                           soil properties of native forests
## 248                                                   not clear
## 250                                                   not clear
## 251                                                   not clear
## 252                                                   not clear
## 253                                                   not clear
## 254                                                   not clear
## 255                                                   not clear
## 256                                                   not clear
## 259                                                   not clear
## 262             stable vegetation to deliver animal production.
## 263                                                   not clear
## 264                                                   not clear
## 267                                                   not clear
## 268                                                   not clear
## 269                                                   not clear
## 271                                                   not clear
## 274                                              native habitat
## 275                                           native vegetation
## 276       seventy percent vegetation cover of undisturbed sites
## 277                                   Atriplex canescens plants
## 278                                    native shrubland habitat
## 
## Number of studies combined: k = 28
## 
##                                         95%-CI     z p-value
## Fixed effect model   -0.0030 [-0.0132; 0.0072] -0.58  0.5589
## Random effects model  0.0168 [-0.0547; 0.0882]  0.46  0.6459
## 
## Quantifying heterogeneity:
## tau^2 = 0.0315; H = 6.23 [5.67; 6.84]; I^2 = 97.4% [96.9%; 97.9%]
## 
## Test of heterogeneity:
##        Q d.f.  p-value
##  1047.16   27 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (fixed effect model):
##                                                         k        
## measure.success = seedling establishment                1  0.1004
## measure.success = native seed bank                      0      NA
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment         1 -0.1868
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...   0      NA
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities    0      NA
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings        1  0.1973
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ...   1  0.1901
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...   0      NA
## measure.success = not clear                             1  0.0430
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities       1 -0.0083
## measure.success = rest pastures                         0      NA
## measure.success = shrub plantations                     0      NA
## measure.success = desert steppe                         1 -0.2808
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community            0      NA
## measure.success = grassland                             0      NA
## measure.success = fungal diversity                      0      NA
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil         1 -0.2971
## measure.success = lizard community                      1 -0.0326
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration     1  0.3318
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ...   1  0.3908
## measure.success = grassland before grazing              0      NA
## measure.success = forest vegetation                     0      NA
## measure.success = native plant communities              0      NA
## measure.success = perennial native grasses              0      NA
## measure.success = natural vegetation                    0      NA
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community           1  0.1280
## measure.success = facilitative effect                   0      NA
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts            0      NA
## measure.success = later-successional community          0      NA
## measure.success = grassland restoration                 2  0.0250
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration               1  0.5020
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance         0      NA
## measure.success = undegraded natural area               0      NA
## measure.success = revegetation                          2  0.0025
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                    1  0.0613
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...   0      NA
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities         0      NA
## measure.success = agroecosystems                        0      NA
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...   0      NA
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration       1 -0.0138
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ...   1 -0.1297
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...   0      NA
## measure.success = plant diversity                       0      NA
## measure.success = native grasslands                     0      NA
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation            1 -0.2280
## measure.success = native vegetation                     2  0.2166
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                0      NA
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                  0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                    0      NA
## measure.success = plant establishment                   0      NA
## measure.success = natural community                     0      NA
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment           1  0.4675
## measure.success = reptile populations                   0      NA
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites      0      NA
## measure.success = native shrub establishment            0      NA
## measure.success = soil water conservation               0      NA
## measure.success = natural recovery                      0      NA
## measure.success = native perennial grasses              1 -0.2642
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery     0      NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition             0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community           0      NA
## measure.success = palatable grasses                     0      NA
## measure.success = diverse community                     0      NA
## measure.success = biomass                               0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                0      NA
## measure.success = productive savanna                    0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                      0      NA
## measure.success = landscape functionality               0      NA
## measure.success = native plant establishment            0      NA
## measure.success = vegetation cover                      0      NA
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland                1 -0.3286
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                  0      NA
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...   0      NA
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...   0      NA
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery          0      NA
## measure.success = original light grazing situation      0      NA
## measure.success = intact site                           0      NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions            0      NA
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation              0      NA
## measure.success = native cerrado community              1  0.2968
## measure.success = soil quality                          0      NA
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests     1 -0.3379
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...   0      NA
## measure.success = native habitat                        0      NA
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...   0      NA
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants             0      NA
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat              0      NA
##                                                                   95%-CI
## measure.success = seedling establishment              [-0.0416;  0.2424]
## measure.success = native seed bank                                      
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment       [-0.2919; -0.0817]
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...                   
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities                    
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings      [-0.1756;  0.5702]
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ... [ 0.1523;  0.2280]
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...                   
## measure.success = not clear                           [-0.0941;  0.1801]
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities     [-0.0913;  0.0747]
## measure.success = rest pastures                                         
## measure.success = shrub plantations                                     
## measure.success = desert steppe                       [-0.3514; -0.2102]
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community                            
## measure.success = grassland                                             
## measure.success = fungal diversity                                      
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil       [-0.3868; -0.2073]
## measure.success = lizard community                    [-0.1910;  0.1257]
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration   [ 0.1006;  0.5630]
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... [ 0.3293;  0.4522]
## measure.success = grassland before grazing                              
## measure.success = forest vegetation                                     
## measure.success = native plant communities                              
## measure.success = perennial native grasses                              
## measure.success = natural vegetation                                    
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community         [-0.0646;  0.3205]
## measure.success = facilitative effect                                   
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts                            
## measure.success = later-successional community                          
## measure.success = grassland restoration               [-0.0232;  0.0733]
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration             [ 0.3552;  0.6489]
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance                         
## measure.success = undegraded natural area                               
## measure.success = revegetation                        [-0.0149;  0.0200]
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                  [-0.8629;  0.9854]
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...                   
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities                         
## measure.success = agroecosystems                                        
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...                   
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration     [-0.0406;  0.0131]
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... [-0.1597; -0.0997]
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...                   
## measure.success = plant diversity                                       
## measure.success = native grasslands                                     
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation          [-0.3094; -0.1466]
## measure.success = native vegetation                   [ 0.1820;  0.2512]
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                                
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                                  
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                                    
## measure.success = plant establishment                                   
## measure.success = natural community                                     
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment         [ 0.2613;  0.6737]
## measure.success = reptile populations                                   
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites                      
## measure.success = native shrub establishment                            
## measure.success = soil water conservation                               
## measure.success = natural recovery                                      
## measure.success = native perennial grasses            [-0.4402; -0.0882]
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery                     
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition                             
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community                           
## measure.success = palatable grasses                                     
## measure.success = diverse community                                     
## measure.success = biomass                                               
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                                
## measure.success = productive savanna                                    
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                                      
## measure.success = landscape functionality                               
## measure.success = native plant establishment                            
## measure.success = vegetation cover                                      
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland              [-0.4648; -0.1924]
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                                  
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...                   
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...                   
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery                          
## measure.success = original light grazing situation                      
## measure.success = intact site                                           
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions                            
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation                              
## measure.success = native cerrado community            [-0.1971;  0.7907]
## measure.success = soil quality                                          
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests   [-0.3809; -0.2950]
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...                   
## measure.success = native habitat                                        
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...                   
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants                             
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat                              
##                                                           Q  tau^2   I^2
## measure.success = seedling establishment               0.00     --    --
## measure.success = native seed bank                       --     --    --
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities     --     --    --
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings       0.00     --    --
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = not clear                            0.00     --    --
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities      0.00     --    --
## measure.success = rest pastures                          --     --    --
## measure.success = shrub plantations                      --     --    --
## measure.success = desert steppe                        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community             --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland                              --     --    --
## measure.success = fungal diversity                       --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = lizard community                     0.00     --    --
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration    0.00     --    --
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = grassland before grazing               --     --    --
## measure.success = forest vegetation                      --     --    --
## measure.success = native plant communities               --     --    --
## measure.success = perennial native grasses               --     --    --
## measure.success = natural vegetation                     --     --    --
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community          0.00     --    --
## measure.success = facilitative effect                    --     --    --
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts             --     --    --
## measure.success = later-successional community           --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland restoration               17.09 0.0302 94.1%
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration              0.00     --    --
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance          --     --    --
## measure.success = undegraded natural area                --     --    --
## measure.success = revegetation                        23.19 0.0046 95.7%
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                   0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities          --     --    --
## measure.success = agroecosystems                         --     --    --
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration      0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = plant diversity                        --     --    --
## measure.success = native grasslands                      --     --    --
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation           0.00     --    --
## measure.success = native vegetation                   37.84 0.0238 97.4%
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                 --     --    --
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                   --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                     --     --    --
## measure.success = plant establishment                    --     --    --
## measure.success = natural community                      --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment          0.00     --    --
## measure.success = reptile populations                    --     --    --
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites       --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrub establishment             --     --    --
## measure.success = soil water conservation                --     --    --
## measure.success = natural recovery                       --     --    --
## measure.success = native perennial grasses             0.00     --    --
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery      --     --    --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition              --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community            --     --    --
## measure.success = palatable grasses                      --     --    --
## measure.success = diverse community                      --     --    --
## measure.success = biomass                                --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                 --     --    --
## measure.success = productive savanna                     --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                       --     --    --
## measure.success = landscape functionality                --     --    --
## measure.success = native plant establishment             --     --    --
## measure.success = vegetation cover                       --     --    --
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland               0.00     --    --
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                   --     --    --
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery           --     --    --
## measure.success = original light grazing situation       --     --    --
## measure.success = intact site                            --     --    --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions             --     --    --
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation               --     --    --
## measure.success = native cerrado community             0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil quality                           --     --    --
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests    0.00     --    --
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = native habitat                         --     --    --
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants              --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat               --     --    --
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (fixed effect model):
##                     Q d.f.  p-value
## Between groups 969.05   24 < 0.0001
## Within groups   78.11    3 < 0.0001
## 
## Results for subgroups (random effects model):
##                                                         k        
## measure.success = seedling establishment                1  0.1004
## measure.success = native seed bank                      0      NA
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment         1 -0.1868
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...   0      NA
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities    0      NA
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings        1  0.1973
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ...   1  0.1901
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...   0      NA
## measure.success = not clear                             1  0.0430
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities       1 -0.0083
## measure.success = rest pastures                         0      NA
## measure.success = shrub plantations                     0      NA
## measure.success = desert steppe                         1 -0.2808
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community            0      NA
## measure.success = grassland                             0      NA
## measure.success = fungal diversity                      0      NA
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil         1 -0.2971
## measure.success = lizard community                      1 -0.0326
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration     1  0.3318
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ...   1  0.3908
## measure.success = grassland before grazing              0      NA
## measure.success = forest vegetation                     0      NA
## measure.success = native plant communities              0      NA
## measure.success = perennial native grasses              0      NA
## measure.success = natural vegetation                    0      NA
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community           1  0.1280
## measure.success = facilitative effect                   0      NA
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts            0      NA
## measure.success = later-successional community          0      NA
## measure.success = grassland restoration                 2 -0.0461
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration               1  0.5020
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance         0      NA
## measure.success = undegraded natural area               0      NA
## measure.success = revegetation                          2  0.0250
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                    1  0.0613
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...   0      NA
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities         0      NA
## measure.success = agroecosystems                        0      NA
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...   0      NA
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration       1 -0.0138
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ...   1 -0.1297
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...   0      NA
## measure.success = plant diversity                       0      NA
## measure.success = native grasslands                     0      NA
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation            1 -0.2280
## measure.success = native vegetation                     2  0.1969
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                0      NA
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                  0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                    0      NA
## measure.success = plant establishment                   0      NA
## measure.success = natural community                     0      NA
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment           1  0.4675
## measure.success = reptile populations                   0      NA
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites      0      NA
## measure.success = native shrub establishment            0      NA
## measure.success = soil water conservation               0      NA
## measure.success = natural recovery                      0      NA
## measure.success = native perennial grasses              1 -0.2642
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery     0      NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition             0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community           0      NA
## measure.success = palatable grasses                     0      NA
## measure.success = diverse community                     0      NA
## measure.success = biomass                               0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                0      NA
## measure.success = productive savanna                    0      NA
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                      0      NA
## measure.success = landscape functionality               0      NA
## measure.success = native plant establishment            0      NA
## measure.success = vegetation cover                      0      NA
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland                1 -0.3286
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                  0      NA
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...   0      NA
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...   0      NA
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery          0      NA
## measure.success = original light grazing situation      0      NA
## measure.success = intact site                           0      NA
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions            0      NA
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation              0      NA
## measure.success = native cerrado community              1  0.2968
## measure.success = soil quality                          0      NA
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests     1 -0.3379
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...   0      NA
## measure.success = native habitat                        0      NA
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...   0      NA
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants             0      NA
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat              0      NA
##                                                                   95%-CI
## measure.success = seedling establishment              [-0.0416;  0.2424]
## measure.success = native seed bank                                      
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment       [-0.2919; -0.0817]
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...                   
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities                    
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings      [-0.1756;  0.5702]
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ... [ 0.1523;  0.2280]
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...                   
## measure.success = not clear                           [-0.0941;  0.1801]
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities     [-0.0913;  0.0747]
## measure.success = rest pastures                                         
## measure.success = shrub plantations                                     
## measure.success = desert steppe                       [-0.3514; -0.2102]
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community                            
## measure.success = grassland                                             
## measure.success = fungal diversity                                      
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil       [-0.3868; -0.2073]
## measure.success = lizard community                    [-0.1910;  0.1257]
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration   [ 0.1006;  0.5630]
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ... [ 0.3293;  0.4522]
## measure.success = grassland before grazing                              
## measure.success = forest vegetation                                     
## measure.success = native plant communities                              
## measure.success = perennial native grasses                              
## measure.success = natural vegetation                                    
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community         [-0.0646;  0.3205]
## measure.success = facilitative effect                                   
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts                            
## measure.success = later-successional community                          
## measure.success = grassland restoration               [-0.2943;  0.2021]
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration             [ 0.3552;  0.6489]
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance                         
## measure.success = undegraded natural area                               
## measure.success = revegetation                        [-0.0708;  0.1207]
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                  [-0.8629;  0.9854]
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...                   
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities                         
## measure.success = agroecosystems                                        
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...                   
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration     [-0.0406;  0.0131]
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ... [-0.1597; -0.0997]
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...                   
## measure.success = plant diversity                                       
## measure.success = native grasslands                                     
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation          [-0.3094; -0.1466]
## measure.success = native vegetation                   [-0.0196;  0.4135]
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                                
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                                  
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                                    
## measure.success = plant establishment                                   
## measure.success = natural community                                     
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment         [ 0.2613;  0.6737]
## measure.success = reptile populations                                   
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites                      
## measure.success = native shrub establishment                            
## measure.success = soil water conservation                               
## measure.success = natural recovery                                      
## measure.success = native perennial grasses            [-0.4402; -0.0882]
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery                     
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition                             
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community                           
## measure.success = palatable grasses                                     
## measure.success = diverse community                                     
## measure.success = biomass                                               
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                                
## measure.success = productive savanna                                    
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                                      
## measure.success = landscape functionality                               
## measure.success = native plant establishment                            
## measure.success = vegetation cover                                      
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland              [-0.4648; -0.1924]
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                                  
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...                   
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...                   
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery                          
## measure.success = original light grazing situation                      
## measure.success = intact site                                           
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions                            
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation                              
## measure.success = native cerrado community            [-0.1971;  0.7907]
## measure.success = soil quality                                          
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests   [-0.3809; -0.2950]
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...                   
## measure.success = native habitat                                        
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...                   
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants                             
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat                              
##                                                           Q  tau^2   I^2
## measure.success = seedling establishment               0.00     --    --
## measure.success = native seed bank                       --     --    --
## measure.success = Triodia wiseana establishment        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = nearby or landscape level veget ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = Artemisia terrae-albae communities     --     --    --
## measure.success = Agropyron desertorum seedlings       0.00     --    --
## measure.success = heterogeneous patterns of soil  ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = increase in soil nutrients and  ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = not clear                            0.00     --    --
## measure.success = natural undisturbed communities      0.00     --    --
## measure.success = rest pastures                          --     --    --
## measure.success = shrub plantations                      --     --    --
## measure.success = desert steppe                        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = Leymus secalinus community             --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland                              --     --    --
## measure.success = fungal diversity                       --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland vegetation and soil        0.00     --    --
## measure.success = lizard community                     0.00     --    --
## measure.success = seed availability for restoration    0.00     --    --
## measure.success = improved soil physicochemical a ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = grassland before grazing               --     --    --
## measure.success = forest vegetation                      --     --    --
## measure.success = native plant communities               --     --    --
## measure.success = perennial native grasses               --     --    --
## measure.success = natural vegetation                     --     --    --
## measure.success = diverse arthropod community          0.00     --    --
## measure.success = facilitative effect                    --     --    --
## measure.success = moss dominated soil crusts             --     --    --
## measure.success = later-successional community           --     --    --
## measure.success = grassland restoration               17.09 0.0302 94.1%
## measure.success = vegetation regeneration              0.00     --    --
## measure.success = vegetation before disturbance          --     --    --
## measure.success = undegraded natural area                --     --    --
## measure.success = revegetation                        23.19 0.0046 95.7%
## measure.success = Narduus grasslands                   0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil carbon and enzyme of grass ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = endemic earthworm communities          --     --    --
## measure.success = agroecosystems                         --     --    --
## measure.success = less invaded and soil recovered ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = decreasing soil P-concentration      0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil carbon and nitrogen of the ...  0.00     --    --
## measure.success = floral resources, cost effectiv ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = plant diversity                        --     --    --
## measure.success = native grasslands                      --     --    --
## measure.success = remnant prairie vegetation           0.00     --    --
## measure.success = native vegetation                   37.84 0.0238 97.4%
## measure.success = semi-natural grassland                 --     --    --
## measure.success = stabilized sand land                   --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed desert                     --     --    --
## measure.success = plant establishment                    --     --    --
## measure.success = natural community                      --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrubs establishment          0.00     --    --
## measure.success = reptile populations                    --     --    --
## measure.success = crusts of little disturbed sites       --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrub establishment             --     --    --
## measure.success = soil water conservation                --     --    --
## measure.success = natural recovery                       --     --    --
## measure.success = native perennial grasses             0.00     --    --
## measure.success = microbial and vegetation recovery      --     --    --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance condition              --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed plant community            --     --    --
## measure.success = palatable grasses                      --     --    --
## measure.success = diverse community                      --     --    --
## measure.success = biomass                                --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed vegetation                 --     --    --
## measure.success = productive savanna                     --     --    --
## measure.success = undisturbed soil                       --     --    --
## measure.success = landscape functionality                --     --    --
## measure.success = native plant establishment             --     --    --
## measure.success = vegetation cover                       --     --    --
## measure.success = endemic sand grassland               0.00     --    --
## measure.success = perennial vegetation                   --     --    --
## measure.success = native vegetation and soil rete ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = native establishment, invasive  ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = soil and vegetation recovery           --     --    --
## measure.success = original light grazing situation       --     --    --
## measure.success = intact site                            --     --    --
## measure.success = pre-disturbance conditions             --     --    --
## measure.success = rangeland rehabilitation               --     --    --
## measure.success = native cerrado community             0.00     --    --
## measure.success = soil quality                           --     --    --
## measure.success = soil properties of native forests    0.00     --    --
## measure.success = stable vegetation to deliver an ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = native habitat                         --     --    --
## measure.success = seventy percent vegetation cove ...    --     --    --
## measure.success = Atriplex canescens plants              --     --    --
## measure.success = native shrubland habitat               --     --    --
## 
## Test for subgroup differences (random effects model):
##                       Q d.f.  p-value
## Between groups   784.78   24 < 0.0001
## 
## Details on meta-analytical method:
## - Inverse variance method
## - DerSimonian-Laird estimator for tau^2
#no difference in random effects model by paradigm but fixed yes. Hetereogeneity is significantly different so a. fixed not representative and b. need a better model
#forest(m,  xlim="symmetric", plotwidth=unit(1, "cm"))
forest(m, sortvar = measure.success)

radial(m)

metabias(m, method = "linreg")

#lrr####